Basic Physics of XPS
A typical XPS spectrum is a plot of the number of electrons detected (sometimes per unit time) (Y-axis, ordinate) versus the binding energy of the electrons detected (X-axis, abscissa). Each element produces a characteristic set of XPS peaks at characteristic binding energy values that directly identify each element that exist in or on the surface of the material being analyzed. These characteristic peaks correspond to the electron configuration of the electrons within the atoms, e.g., 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, etc. The number of detected electrons in each of the characteristic peaks is directly related to the amount of element within the area (volume) irradiated. To generate atomic percentage values, each raw XPS signal must be corrected by dividing its signal intensity (number of electrons detected) by a "relative sensitivity factor" (RSF) and normalized over all of the elements detected.
To count the number of electrons at each kinetic energy value, with the minimum of error, XPS must be performed under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions because electron counting detectors in XPS instruments are typically one meter away from the material irradiated with X-rays.
It is important to note that XPS detects only those electrons that have actually escaped into the vacuum of the instrument. The photo-emitted electrons that have escaped into the vacuum of the instrument are those that originated from within the top 10 to 12 nm of the material. All of the deeper photo-emitted electrons, which were generated as the X-rays penetrated 1– 5 micrometers of the material, are either recaptured or trapped in various excited states within the material. For most applications, it is, in effect, a non-destructive technique that measures the surface chemistry of any material.
Read more about this topic: X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
Famous quotes containing the words basic and/or physics:
“The “universal moments” of child rearing are in fact nothing less than a confrontation with the most basic problems of living in society: a facing through one’s children of all the conflicts inherent in human relationships, a clarification of issues that were unresolved in one’s own growing up. The experience of child rearing not only can strengthen one as an individual but also presents the opportunity to shape human relationships of the future.”
—Elaine Heffner (20th century)
“Mathematics should be mixed not only with physics but with ethics.”
—Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862)