Wars of The Roses - Magnates and Armies

Magnates and Armies

England in the fifteenth century was ruled by kings who claimed divine right and were believed by the people to be the "Lord's anointed", directed and guided by the hand of God. The king's chief functions were to protect his people by defending them against their enemies, to govern justly and to preserve and enforce the law of the land. The character of the sovereign, in such a society, was all-important because on it depended the security and well-being of his subjects. Although the king wielded vast power by ruling as well as reigning, the complexity of government in a nation of some 3 million people had led to increasing delegation of power through a growing number of state departments.

The law of succession to the throne was ill-defined but, generally, the rule of primogeniture applied with the succession of the eldest son and his heirs. From the brief rule of Empress Matilda in the twelfth century to the fall of Richard II in 1399, primogeniture had not been seriously tested because of the sufficiency of male heirs produced by the House of Plantagenet. From 1399 to the end of the fifteenth century however, the crown became the object of feuds because of the rise of what Sir John Fortescue, writing in the 1460s, called "the over-mighty subject". There were too many powerful magnates who had a claim to the throne or who aspired to be the power behind it. As a result, a new and disturbing element was added to the determination of the royal succession: the prevalence of might over right.

Defence of the realm was especially important and most English people are believed to have placed great value on success in arms: hence, the king had to be seen as a competent warrior. A crucial point about the series of conflicts that came to be known as The Wars of the Roses was that the king did not maintain a standing army. Rather, he relied upon his nobles to furnish him with troops when necessary, so it was vital that he maintained good relations with aristocracy and gentry who, if provoked, might use their armed strength against him. It followed that the king was duty bound to prevent power struggles between the magnates, especially if these could impact the stability of the realm.

The Wars of the Roses were fought primarily by the great magnates of the landed aristocracy. These were the royal dukes, marquesses and earls who were relatively few in number; and a greater number of barons, knights and landed gentry. Besides the huge estates they controlled, many enhanced their wealth by investment in trade and expanded their influence through political marriage alliances. They were supported by armies of feudal retainers and tenants, sometimes with the aid of foreign mercenaries; this practice of controlling large numbers of paid men-at-arms was known as "maintenance". Besides the size of his private army, a nobleman's prestige was measured by his "affinity" (i.e., those bound by contract to serve him). The retainer who became a member of an affinity wore the nobleman's "livery" (a uniform and badge) and accompany him on military campaigns; in return, the nobleman would pay him a pension, provide protection and grant rewards such as land or a lucrative office. This unofficial system of "livery and maintenance" largely came about through the decline of feudalism in the wake of the Hundred Years War to be replaced by what some historians call "bastard feudalism" whereby the retainer did not serve the nobleman as a feudal vassal but as a liveried retainer under contract or indenture.

Most armies fought entirely on foot. In several cases, the magnates dismounted and fought among the common foot-soldiers, to inspire them and to dispel the notion that in the case of defeat they might be ransomed while the common soldiers, being of little value, faced death. It was often claimed, however, that the nobles faced greater risks than the ordinary soldiers. The Burgundian observer Philippe de Commines reported that once Edward IV had seen that victory was certain on the battlefield, he would call out that the fleeing common soldiers would be spared, but no mercy would be shown to the lords. There was little incentive for anyone to take prisoner any high-ranking noble during or immediately after a battle. During the Hundred Years' War against France, a captured noble would be able to ransom himself for a large sum, but in the Wars of the Roses, a noble who belonged to a defeated faction would be declared attainted, and therefore possessing no property, and of no value to his captor.