Spacecraft Propulsion - Table of Methods

Table of Methods

Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies, followed by increasingly speculative methods.

Four numbers are shown. The first is the effective exhaust velocity: the equivalent speed that the propellant leaves the vehicle. This is not necessarily the most important characteristic of the propulsion method; thrust and power consumption and other factors can be. However:

  • if the delta-v is much more than the exhaust velocity, then exorbitant amounts of fuel are necessary (see the section on calculations, above)
  • if it is much more than the delta-v, then, proportionally more energy is needed; if the power is limited, as with solar energy, this means that the journey takes a proportionally longer time

The second and third are the typical amounts of thrust and the typical burn times of the method. Outside a gravitational potential small amounts of thrust applied over a long period will give the same effect as large amounts of thrust over a short period. (This result does not apply when the object is significantly influenced by gravity.)

The fourth is the maximum delta-v this technique can give (without staging). For rocket-like propulsion systems this is a function of mass fraction and exhaust velocity. Mass fraction for rocket-like systems is usually limited by propulsion system weight and tankage weight. For a system to achieve this limit, typically the payload may need to be a negligible percentage of the vehicle, and so the practical limit on some systems can be much lower.

Propulsion methods
Method Effective
Exhaust
Velocity
(km/s)
Thrust
(N)
Firing
Duration
Maximum
Delta-v
(km/s)
Technology
readiness
level
Solid-fuel rocket 7001600000000000000minutes 7000700000000000000~ 7 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Hybrid rocket 7001600000000000000minutes 7000300000000000000> 3 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Monopropellant rocket 70002000000000000001 – 3 70003162277660168400.1 – 100 7000100000000000000milliseconds-minutes 7000300000000000000~ 3 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Liquid-fuel rocket 7001600000000000000minutes 7000900000000000000~ 9 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Electrostatic ion thruster 700211250000000000015 – 210 7006910989442748929months/years 7002100000000000000> 100 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Hall effect thruster (HET) 70012900000000000008 - 50 7006910989442748929months/years 7002100000000000000> 100 70009000000000000009:Flight proven
Resistojet rocket 70004000000000000002 - 6 699931622776601684010−2 - 10 7001600000000000000minutes ? 70008000000000000008:Flight qualified
Arcjet rocket 70011000000000000004 - 16 699931622776601684010−2 - 10 7001600000000000000minutes ? 70008000000000000008:Flight qualified
Field Emission Electric Propulsion (FEEP) 7002115000000000000100-130 699531622776601684010−6-10−3 7006910989442748929months/years ? 70008000000000000008:Flight qualified
Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) 7001200000000000000~ 20 6999100000000000000~ 0.1 7007160996894379980~2,000–10,000 hours ? 70007000000000000007:Prototype demoed in space
Dual mode propulsion rocket 70002850000000000001 – 4.7 70031000000000000000.1 – 107 7000100000000000000milliseconds-minutes 7000600000000000000~ 3 – 9 70007000000000000007:Prototype demoed in space
Solar sails 299790:Light
145–750:Wind
70009000000000000009/km2 @ 1 AU
230/km2@0.2AU
10−10/km2@4 ly
indefinite 7001400000000000000> 40 70006667000000000009:Light pressure attitude-control flight proven
6:Deploy-only demoed in space
5:Light-sail validated in lit vacuum
Tripropellant rocket 70003900000000000002.5 - 5.3 70031000000000000000.1 - 107 7001600000000000000minutes 7000900000000000000~ 9 70006000000000000006:Prototype demoed on ground
Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster (MPD) 700160000000000000020 - 100 7002100000000000000100 7005604800000000000weeks ? 70006000000000000006:Model-1 kW demoed in space
Nuclear thermal rocket 70009000000000000009 7007100000000000000107 7001600000000000000minutes 7001200000000000000> ~ 20 70006000000000000006:Prototype demoed on ground
Mass drivers (for propulsion) 70011500000000000000 - ~30 7006100000000000000104 - 108 7006267840000000000months ? 70006000000000000006:Model-32MJ demoed on ground
Tether propulsion N/A 70061000000000000001 - 1012 7001600000000000000minutes 7000700000000000000~ 7 70006000000000000006:Model-31.7 km demoed in space
Air-augmented rocket 70005500000000000005 - 6 70031000000000000000.1 - 107 7000774596669241480seconds-minutes 7000700000000000000> 7? 70006000000000000006:Prototype demoed on ground
Liquid air cycle engine 70004500000000000004.5 7005100000000000000103 - 107 7000774596669241480seconds-minutes ? 70006000000000000006:Prototype demoed on ground
Pulsed inductive thruster (PIT) 700145000000000000010-80 700120000000000000020 7006267840000000000months ? 70005000000000000005:Component validated in vacuum
Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) 700215500000000000010 - 300 700262000000000000040 - 1,200 7005481054840948510days - months 7002100000000000000> 100 70005000000000000005:Component-200 kW validated in vacuum
Magnetic field oscillating amplified thruster 700170000000000000010 - 130 69993162277660168400.1 - 1 7005481054840948510days - months 7002100000000000000> 100 70005000000000000005:Component validated in vacuum
Solar thermal rocket 70009500000000000007 - 12 70011000000000000001 - 100 7005604800000000000weeks 7001200000000000000> ~ 20 70004000000000000004:Component validated in lab
Radioisotope rocket 70007500000000000007 - 8 70001400000000999991.3 - 1.5 7006267840000000000months ? 70004000000000000004:Component validated in lab
Nuclear electric rocket(As electric prop. method used) Variable Variable Variable ? 70004000000000000004:Component-400kW validated in lab
Orion Project (Near term nuclear pulse propulsion) 700160000000000000020 - 100 7010316227766016840109 - 1012 7005604800000000000several days 7001450000000000000~30-60 70003000000000000003:Validated-900 kg proof-of-concept
Space elevator N/A N/A indefinite 7001120000000000000> 12 70003000000000000003:Validated proof-of-concept
Reaction Engines SABRE 700117250000000000030/4.5 70031000000000000000.1 - 107 7001600000000000000minutes 70009400000000000009.4 70003000000000000003:Validated proof-of-concept
Magnetic sails 7002447500000000000145-750:Wind 700170000000000000070/40Mg indefinite ? 70003000000000000003:Validated proof-of-concept
Magnetic sail#Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion 7002200000000000000200 7002400000000000000~1 N/kW 7006267840000000000months ? 70003000000000000003:Validated proof-of-concept
Beam-powered/Laser(As prop. method powered by beam) Variable Variable Variable ? 70003000000000000003:Validated-71m proof-of-concept
Launch loop/Orbital ring N/A 7004100000000000000~104 7001600000000000000minutes 7001205000000000000>>11-30 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Nuclear pulse propulsion (Project Daedalus' drive) 700251000000000000020 - 1,000 7010316227766016840109 - 1012 7007315576000000000years 7004150000000000000~15,000 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Gas core reactor rocket 700115000000000000010 - 20 7004316227766016840103 - 106 ? ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Nuclear salt-water rocket 7002100000000000000100 7005100000000000000103 - 107 7003180000000000000half hour ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Fission sail ? ? ? ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Fission-fragment rocket 700415000000000000015,000 ? ? ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Nuclear photonic rocket 7005299790000000000299,790 699731622776601684010−5 - 1 7007997938934885300years-decades ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Fusion rocket 7002550000000000000100 - 1,000 ? ? ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion 7003210000000000000200 - 4,000 ? 7005228592913275980days-weeks ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Antimatter rocket 700455000000000000010,000-100,000 ? ? ? 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Bussard ramjet 70041000110000000002.2 - 20,000 ? indefinite 7004300000000000000~30,000 70002000000000000002:Technology concept formulated
Gravitoelectromagnetic toroidal launchers 7005299790000000000299,790:GEM ? ? 7005299790000000000<299790 70001000000000000001:Basic principles observed & reported
Method Effective
Exhaust
Velocity
(km/s)
Thrust
(N)
Firing
Duration
Maximum
Delta-v
(km/s)
Technology
readiness
level

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