Sound Changes
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some basic vocabulary items, leading from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Modern English. The notation >! indicates an unexpected change (the simple notation ">" indicates an expected change). The notation "---" means no change at the given stage for the given item. Only sound changes that had an effect on one or more of the vocabulary items are shown.
| one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Indo-European | óinos | dúoH | trih₂ (fem.) | kʷetwó:res | pénkʷe | seḱs | septḿ | méh₂te:r | ḱe:rd | h₂ḱousyónom |
| PIE pronunciation | óinos | dúoh? | triχ | kʷetwó:res | pénkʷe | seks | septḿ | máχte:r | ke:rd | χkousjónom |
| Laryngeal changes | --- | dúo: | tría | --- | --- | --- | --- | má:te:r | --- | kousjónom |
| Osthoff's Law | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | kerd | --- |
| Sievers' Law | --- | --- | tríja | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | kousijónom |
| Pre-Germanic unexpected changes | --- | >! dwoi | >! tríja: | >! petwó:res | >! pémpe | --- | >! sepḿt | --- | >! kérd-o:n | --- |
| Vocalic resonant | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sepúmt | --- | --- | --- |
| Final -m > -n | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sepúnt | --- | --- | kousijónon |
| Grimm's Law | --- | twoi | θríja: | feθwó:res | fémfe | sehs | sefúnt | má:θe:r | hérto:n | housijónon |
| Verner's Law | oinoz | --- | θrija: | feðwo:rez | femfe | --- | sevunt | ma:θe:r | herto:n | houzijonon |
| a ō > o ā | ainaz | twai | θrijo: | --- | --- | --- | --- | mo:θe:r | --- | hauzijanan |
| Nasal raising | --- | --- | --- | --- | fimfe | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Proto-Germanic final reduction | --- | --- | --- | feðwo:rz | fimf | --- | sevun | --- | hertõ: | hauzijanã |
| Proto-Germanic form | ainaz | twai | θrijo: | feðwo:rz | fimf | sehs | sevun | mo:θe:r | hertõ: | hauzijanã |
| West Germanic (WG) final reduction | ainz | --- | θriu | feðwurz | --- | --- | --- | mo:θer | hertã > herta | hauzijan |
| WG final -z loss | ain | --- | --- | feðwur | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| WG z > r | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | haurijan |
| WG ðw > ww | --- | --- | --- | fewwur | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ingvaeonic nasal loss | --- | --- | --- | --- | fi:f | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ai > ā | a:n | twa: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anglo-Frisian brightening | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hertæ | hæurijan |
| Old English (OE) i-mutation | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | heyrijan |
| OE loss of i-mutation trigger | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | heyran |
| OE intervocalic voicing | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mo:ðer | --- | --- |
| OE breaking | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hĕŭrtæ | --- |
| OE diphthong height harmony | --- | --- | --- | feowur | --- | --- | --- | --- | hĕŏrtæ | he:ran |
| OE back mutation | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sĕŏvun | --- | --- | --- |
| OE final reduction | --- | --- | --- | feowor | --- | --- | sĕŏvon | >! mo:ðor | hĕŏrte | --- |
| OE ehs eht > ihs iht | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sihs | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| OE hs > ks | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | siks | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late OE iu > eo | --- | --- | θreo | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late Old English spelling | ān | twā | þrēo | fēowor | fīf | six | seofon | mōþor | heorte | hēran |
| Middle English (ME) smoothing | --- | --- | θrø: | fø:wor | --- | --- | søvon | --- | hørte | --- |
| ME final reduction | --- | --- | --- | fø:wǝr | --- | --- | søvǝn | mo:ðǝr | hørtǝ | he:rǝn |
| ME a: æ: > ɔ: ɛ: | ɔ:n | twɔ: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ME unexpected (?) vowel changes | --- | >! two: | --- | --- | >! fi:v-ǝ | --- | --- | --- | --- | >! hɛ:rǝn |
| ME diphthong changes | --- | --- | --- | >! fowǝr | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late ME unrounding | --- | --- | θre: | --- | --- | --- | sevǝn | --- | hertǝ | --- |
| Late Middle English spelling | oon | two | three | fower | five | six | seven | mother | herte | heere(n) |
| Late ME final reduction | --- | --- | --- | >! fowr | fi:v | --- | --- | --- | hert | hɛ:r |
| Late ME Great Vowel Shift | o:n >! wʊn | twu: > tu: | θri: | --- | fǝiv | --- | --- | mu:ðǝr | --- | he:r |
| Early Modern English (ENE) smoothing | --- | --- | --- | fo:r | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ENE shortening | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mʊðǝr | --- | --- |
| ENE /ʊ/ > /ʌ/ | wʌn | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mʌðǝr | --- | --- |
| ENE /er/ > /ar/ | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hart | --- |
| Later vowel shifts | --- | --- | --- | fɔ:r | faiv | sɪks | --- | --- | hɑrt | hi:r |
| Loss of -r (British only) | --- | --- | --- | fɔ: | --- | --- | --- | mʌðǝ | hɑ:t | hiǝ |
| Modern pronunciation | wʌn | tu: | θri: | fɔ:(r) | faiv | sɪks | sevǝn | mʌðǝ(r) | hɑrt/hɑ:t | hi:r/hiǝ |
| one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear |
NOTE: Some of the changes listed above as "unexpected" are more predictable than others. For example:
- tríja "three" > tríja: and ke:rd "heart" > kérd-o:n are morphological changes that move a word from a rare declension to a more common one, and hence are not so surprising.
- On the other extreme, the Early Modern English change of o:n "one" >! wʊn is almost completely mysterious. Note that the related words alone (< all + one) and only (< one + -ly) did not change.
Read more about this topic: Old English
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