Programming
Most graphing calculators, as well as some non-graphing scientific and programmer's calculators can be programmed to automate complex and frequently used series of calculations and those inaccessible from the keyboard.
The actual programming can often be done on a computer then later uploaded to the calculators. The most common tools for this include the PC link cable and software for the given calculator, configurable text editors or hex editors, and specialized programming tools such as the below-mentioned implementation of various languages on the computer side.
Earlier calculators stored programs on magnetic cards and the like; increased memory capacity has made storage on the calculator the most common implementation. Some of the newer machines can also use memory cards.
Many calculators, such as earlier TI graphing and scientific calculators will tokenize the code for a program or function, using ISO 8859 type character codes for the statements and other programming elements. The TI-92 Plus and many HP calculators read the code much like computers do and they have functions such as Chr$, Chr, Char, Asc, and the like in Basic (sometimes renamed) in addition to using somewhat modified or unmodified versions of 7-bit, 8-bit or 9-bit ISO 8859-derived character sets and other character sets running from of values of 0 to 127 (07F hex), 255 (0FF hex), or 511 (1FF hex) -- and many of them have a tool similar to the Character Map on Windows.
Three websites with extensive programming information are www.ticalc.org, www.hpcalc.org, and www.casiocalc.org. The official sites of the manufacturers and of other people like professors & teachers, students, statisticians, scientists, and organizations like university business and computer science departments, SourceForge, and the 27. November Spreadsheet Macro Programming Club are also useful. A broad array of third-party software including 3D function graphing tools, web browsers, chat, email and NNTP clients, telnet/SSH, spreadsheets, word processors, sound & graphics tools, network tools, and programming tools can be located on the internet.
A cable and/or IrDA transceiver connecting the calculator to a computer make the process easier and expands other possibilities such as on-board spreadsheet, database, graphics, and word processing programs. The second option is being able to code the programs on board the calculator itself. This option is facilitated by the inclusion of full-screen text editors and other programming tools in the default feature set of the calculator or as optional items. Some calculators have QWERTY keyboards and others can be attached to an external keyboard which can be close to the size of a regular 102-key computer keyboard. Programming is a major use for the software and cables used to connect calculators to computers, other calculators &c.
The most common programming languages used for calculators are similar to keystroke-macro languages and variants of BASIC. The latter can have a large feature set—approaching that of Basic as found in computers—including character and string manipulation, advanced conditional and branching statements, sound, graphics, and more including, of course, the huge spectrum of mathematical, string, bit-manipulation, number base, I/O, and graphics functions built into the machine.
Languages for programming calculators fall into all of the main groups, i.e. machine code, low-level, mid-level, high-level languages for systems and application programming, scripting, macro, and glue languages, procedural, functional, imperative &. Object-Oriented Programming can be achieved in some cases.
Most calculators capable to being connected to a computer can be programmed in assembly language and machine code, although on some calculators this is only possible through using exploits. The most common assembly and machine languages are for TMS9900, SH3, Zilog Z-80, and various Motorola chips (e.g. a modified 68000) which serve as the main processors of the machines although many (not all) are modified to some extent from their use elsewhere. Some manufacturers do not document and even mildly discourage the assembly language programming of their machines because they must programmed in this way by putting together the program on the PC and then forcing it into the calculator by various improvised methods.
Other on-board programming languages include purpose-made languages, variants of Eiffel, Forth, and Lisp, and Command Script facilities which are similar in function to batch/shell programming and other glue languages on computers but generally not as full featured. Ports of other languages like BBC Basic and development of on-board interpreters for Fortran, Rexx, Awk, Perl, Unix shells (ksh, sh, bash, csh, zsh, tcsh &c.), other shells (DOS/Win95, OS/2, and WinNT/2000 shells as well as the related 4Dos, 4NT and 4OS2 as well as DCL), Cobol, C, Python, Tcl, Pascal, Delphi, ALGOL, and other languages are at various levels of development.
Some calculators, especially those with other PDA-like functions have actual operating systems including the TI proprietary OS for its more recent machines, MS-DOS, Windows CE, and rarely Windows NT 4.0 Embedded et seq, and Linux. Experiments with the TI-89, 92, 92+ and Voyage 200 machines show the possibility of installing some variants of other systems such as a chopped-down variant of CP/M, an operating system which has been used for portable devices in the past.
Tools which allow for programming the calculators in C/C++ and possibly Fortran and assembly language are used on the computer side, such as HPgcc, TIgcc and others. Flash memory is another means of conveyance of information to and from the calculator.
The on-board Basic variants in TI graphing calculators and the languages available on HP 48 type calculators can be used for rapid prototyping by developers, professors, and students, often when a computer is not close at hand.
Most graphing calculators have on-board spreadsheets which usually integrate with Microsoft Excel on the computer side. At this time, spreadsheets with macro and other automation facilities on the calculator side are not on the market. In some cases, the list, matrix, and data grid facilities can be combined with the native programming language of the calculator to have the effect of a macro and scripting enabled spreadsheet.
Read more about this topic: Graphing Calculator
Famous quotes containing the word programming:
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—Melinda M. Marshall (20th century)