Risk Factors
Hypertension is one of the most common complex disorders. The etiology of hypertension differs widely amongst individuals within a large population. And by definition, essential hypertension has no identifiable cause. However, several risk factors have been identified.
Hypertension may be secondary to other diseases but over 95% of patients have essential hypertension which is of unknown origin. It is observed though that:
- Having a personal family history of hypertension increases the likelihood that an individual develops HPT.
- Essential hypertension is four times more common in black than white people, accelerates more rapidly and is often more severe with higher mortality in black patients.
More than 50 genes have been examined in association studies with hypertension, and the number is constantly growing. One of these genes is the angiotensinogen (AGT) gene, studied extensively by Kim et al. They showed that increasing the number of AGT increases the blood pressure and hence this may cause hypertension. Twins have been included in studies measuring ambulatory blood pressure; from these studies it has been suggested that essential hypertension contains a large genetic influence. Supporting data has emerged from animal studies as well as clinical studies in human populations. The majority of these studies support the concept that the inheritance is probably multifactorial or that a number of different genetic defects each has an elevated blood pressure as one of its phenotypic expressions. However, the genetic influence upon hypertension is not fully understood at the moment. It is believed that linking hypertension-related phenotypes with specific variations of the genome may yield definitive evidence of heritability. Another view is that hypertension can be caused by mutations in single genes, inherited on a Mendelian basis.
Hypertension can also be age related, and if this is the case, it is likely to be multifactorial. One possible mechanism involves a reduction in vascular compliance due to the stiffening of the arteries. This can build up due to isolated systolic hypertension with a widened pulse pressure. A decrease in glomerular filtration rate is related to aging and this results in decreasing efficiency of sodium excretion. The developing of certain diseases such as renal microvascular disease and capillary rarefaction may relate to this decrease in efficiency of sodium excretion. There is experimental evidence that suggests that renal microvascular disease is an important mechanism for inducing salt-sensitive hypertension.
Obesity can increase the risk of hypertension to fivefold as compared with normal weight, and up to two-thirds of hypertension cases can be attributed to excess weight. More than 85% of cases occur in those with a Body mass index greater than 25. A definitive link between obesity and hypertension has been found using animal and clinical studies; from these it has been realized that many mechanisms are potential causes of obesity-induced hypertension. These mechanisms include the activation of the sympathetic nervous system as well as the activation of the renin–angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Another risk factor is salt (sodium) sensitivity which is an environmental factor that has received the greatest attention. Approximately one third of the essential hypertensive population is responsive to sodium intake. When sodium intake exceeds the capacity of the body to excrete it through the kidneys, vascular volume expands secondary to movement of fluids into the intra-vascular compartment. This causes the arterial pressure to rise as the cardiac output increases. Local autoregulatory mechanisms counteract this by increasing vascular resistance to maintain normotension in local vascular beds. As arterial pressure increases in response to high sodium chloride intake, urinary sodium excretion increases and the excretion of salt is maintained at expense of increased vascular pressures. The increased sodium ion concentration stimulates ADH and thirst mechanisms, leading to increased reabsorption of water in the kidneys, concentrated urine, and thirst with higher intake of water. Also, the water movement between cells and the interstitium plays a minor role compared to this. The relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure is controversial. Reducing sodium intake does reduce blood pressure, but the magnitude of the effect is insufficient to recommend a general reduction in salt intake.
Renin elevation is another risk factor. Renin is an enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney and linked with aldosterone in a negative feedback loop. In consequence, some hypertensive patients have been defined as having low-renin and others as having essential hypertension. Low-renin hypertension is more common in African Americans than white Americans, and may explain why African Americans tend to respond better to diuretic therapy than drugs that interfere with the Renin-angiotensin system. High renin levels predispose to hypertension by causing sodium retention through the following mechanism: Increased renin → Increased angiotensin II → Increased vasoconstriction, thirst/ADH and aldosterone → Increased sodium reabsorption in the kidneys (DCT and CD) → Increased blood pressure.
Hypertension can also be caused by Insulin resistance and/or hyperinsulinemia, which are components of syndrome X, or the metabolic syndrome. Insulin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by cells in the islets of Langerhans, which are contained throughout the pancreas. Its main purpose is to regulate the levels of glucose in the body antagonistically with glucagon through negative feedback loops. Insulin also exhibits vasodilatory properties. In normotensive individuals, insulin may stimulate sympathetic activity without elevating mean arterial pressure. However, in more extreme conditions such as that of the metabolic syndrome, the increased sympathetic neural activity may over-ride the vasodilatory effects of insulin.
It has been suggested that vitamin D deficiency is associated with cardiovascular risk factors. It has been observed that individuals with a vitamin D deficiency have higher systolic and diastolic blood pressures than average. Vitamin D inhibits renin secretion and its activity, it therefore acts as a "negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system". Hence a deficiency in vitamin D leads to an increase in renin secretion. This is one possible mechanism of explaining the observed link between hypertension and vitamin D levels in the blood plasma.
Also, some authorities claim that potassium might both prevent and treat hypertension.
Recent studies claims that obesity is a risk factor for hypertension because of activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in adipose tissue, and also linked renin-angiotensin system with insulin resistance, and claims that any one can cause the other.
Cigarette smoking, a known risk factor for other cardiovascular disease, may also be a risk factor for the development of hypertension.
Read more about this topic: Essential Hypertension
Famous quotes containing the words risk and/or factors:
“Nature, we are starting to realize, is every bit as important as nurture. Genetic influences, brain chemistry, and neurological development contribute strongly to who we are as children and what we become as adults. For example, tendencies to excessive worrying or timidity, leadership qualities, risk taking, obedience to authority, all appear to have a constitutional aspect.”
—Stanley Turecki (20th century)
“Language makes it possible for a child to incorporate his parents’ verbal prohibitions, to make them part of himself....We don’t speak of a conscience yet in the child who is just acquiring language, but we can see very clearly how language plays an indispensable role in the formation of conscience. In fact, the moral achievement of man, the whole complex of factors that go into the organization of conscience is very largely based upon language.”
—Selma H. Fraiberg (20th century)